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Research Methods for Social & Behavioral Sciences

Source Types

Select the tabs above to learn more about primary and secondary sources.

What are scholarly sources?

Scholarly sources are products of academic research and scholarship. They are research-based publications that are written by researchers for researchers.

Peer Review

A peer-reviewed article is a journal article that has been reviewed by other subject experts and scholars before being published. The group of experts and scholar reviewing an article either accept, reject, or request edits and revisions of the article before it is published. Because of this process, peer-reviewed journal articles are often considered the most reliable and authoritative sources. This video will explain.

To find peer-reviewed articles, you can either search directly in a database or do a keyword search in the Explore RSU Libraries search box on our homepage and then select the "Peer-Review" filter. 

Primary Sources

  • Original materials on which other research is based.

    • Including original research articles written by the researcher(s) who conducted the research.

  • Contain mention of methodology

  • Usually the first formal appearance of results in the print or electronic literature.

  • Present information in its original form, neither interpreted nor condensed nor evaluated by other writers.

  • Are from the time period (for example, something written close to when what it is recording happened is likely to be a primary source.)

  • Present original thinking, report on discoveries, or share new information.

For Example:

  • Scientific journal articles reporting experimental research results

  • Proceedings of Meetings, Conferences and Symposia.

  • Technical reports

  • Dissertations or theses (may also be secondary)

  • Internet communications on email, listservs, and newsgroups

Empirical Research

The APA Dictionary of Psychology defines empirical as:

"derived from or denoting experimentation or systematic observations as the basis for conclusion or determination, as opposed to speculative, theoretical, or exclusively reason-based approaches."

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. Empirical research is a primary source.

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the abstract and subheadings within the article or report and look for a description of the research methodology. Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics:

  • Specific research questions to be answered
  • Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
  • Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
  • May use quantitative or qualitative research methods

Another Hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the IMRaD format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

  • Introduction: sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies. The Introduction is where you are most likely to find the research question.
  • Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools.
  • Results: sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants.
  • Discussion: sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies.

Example: Acar, I. H., Avcilar, G., Yazici, G., & Bostanci, S. (2022). The roles of adolescents' emotional problems and social media addiction on their self-esteem.

Adapted from the following:

Eastern Michigan University Library. Anthropology & Sociology: Primary vs. Secondary Source Material. Eastern Michigan University, August 2025. 
https://guides.emich.edu/c.php?g=1084267&p=7904073.

Saylor, Ward, & Helen Hooper. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources. Information Services program - Academic Support Division; James Cook University, July 2000. http://cms.jcu.edu.au/libcomp/assist/guides/azguides/JCUPRD_030412.

Secondary Sources

  • Draws upon existing primary source literature to analyze, interpret, or discuss a concept

  • Comment on and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources.

  • Are works which are one or more steps removed from the event or information they refer to, being written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight.

For Example:

  • Dictionaries and encyclopedias

  • Handbooks and data compilations

  • Journal articles, particularly in disciplines other than science (may also be primary)

  • Monographs (other than fiction and autobiography)

  • Newspaper and popular magazine articles (may also be primary)

  • Review articles and literature reviews

  • Textbooks

Literature Review

Peer-reviewed articles that systematically describe, summarize, and often categorize and evaluate previous research on a topic without collecting new data.

While these articles are not empirical, they are often a great source of information on previous empirical research on a topic with citations to find that research.

Two types of reviews common in the social sciences include systematic review and meta-analysis.

 

Systematic Review

  • Identifies, appraises, and synthesizes all empirical evidence that meets pre-specified eligibility criteria
  • Methods section outlines a detailed search strategy used to identify and appraise articles
  • May include a meta-analysis, but not required

Example: Lohani, G., & Sharma, P. (2023). Effect of clinical supervision on self-awareness and self-efficacy of psychotherapists and counselors: A systematic review.

 

Meta-Analysis

  • A subset of systematic reviews: uses quantitative methods to combine the results of independent studies and synthesize the summaries and conclusions
  • Methods section outlines a detailed search strategy used to identify and appraise articles; often surveys clinical trials
  • Can be conducted independently, or as a part of a systematic review

All meta-analyses are systematic reviews, but not all systematic reviews are meta-analyses

Example: Alldredge, C., Burlingame, G., & Rosendahl, J. (2023). Group psychotherapy for chronic pain: A meta-analysis.

Theoretical Article

A theoretical article contains or refers to new or established abstract principles related to a specific field of knowledge. These articles are peer-reviewed but do not normally contain research or present experimental data.

Example: Charmaz, K., & Thornberg, R. (2021). The pursuit of quality in grounded theory

Adapted from the following:

Eastern Michigan University Library. Anthropology & Sociology: Primary vs. Secondary Source Material. Eastern Michigan University, August 2025. 
https://guides.emich.edu/c.php?g=1084267&p=7904073.

Saylor, Ward, & Helen Hooper. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources. Information Services program - Academic Support Division; James Cook University, July 2000. http://cms.jcu.edu.au/libcomp/assist/guides/azguides/JCUPRD_030412.