Research Methods for Social & Behavioral Sciences

Scholarly sources are products of academic research and scholarship. They are research-based publications that are written by researchers for researchers.

Types of Scholarly Sources

The peer-reviewed journal article is the gold standard source type, but when you search in a library database you may also find other types of scholarly sources such as:

Academic Journal Articles	Books /Book Chapters	Other
Empirical Study Literature Review Theory Article	Reference Books     Encyclopedias     Handbooks Scholarly Books     Chapter in an edited volume (book with multiple authors)	Dissertations Conference Proceedings Reports and White Papers

Peer Review

A peer-reviewed article is a journal article that has been reviewed by other subject experts and scholars before being published. The group of experts and scholar reviewing an article either accept, reject, or request edits and revisions of the article before it is published. Because of this process, peer-reviewed journal articles are often considered the most reliable and authoritative sources. This video will explain.

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To find peer-reviewed articles, you can either search directly in a database or do a keyword search in the Explore RSU Libraries search box on our homepage and then select the "Peer-Review" filter. 

 

Primary & Secondary sources

Primary sources are original research articles, meaning that they are written by the researchers who conducted the research.  They are most often written once the research is complete or near completion. 

Secondary sources in include articles that summarize or provide interpretations of original research. Secondary sources can be articles or books. Review articles are also considered a secondary source.

 

Empirical Research

The APA Dictionary of Psychology defines empirical as:

• "derived from or denoting experimentation or systematic observations as the basis for conclusion or determination, as opposed to speculative, theoretical, or exclusively reason-based approaches."

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. Empirical research is a primary source.

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the abstract and subheadings within the article or report and look for a description of the research methodology. Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics:

• Specific research questions to be answered
• Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
• Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)
• May use quantitative or qualitative research methods
• Published in peer-reviewed scholarly journals

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the IMRaD format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

• Introduction: sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies. The Introduction is where you are most likely to find the research question. 
• Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
• Results: sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
• Discussion: sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

Example: Wade, L., Elliott, T. R., Schlegel, R. J., Williamson, (2023). Resilience and well-being among persons with spinal cord injury/disorders.

 

Other types of scholarly articles

Literature Review

Peer-reviewed articles that systematically describe, summarize, and often categorize and evaluate previous research on a topic without collecting new data.

While these articles are not empirical, they are often a great source of information on previous empirical research on a topic with citations to find that research. 

Two types of reviews common in the social sciences include meta-analysis and systematic review.

• systematic review 
  • Identifies, appraises, and synthesizes all empirical evidence that meets pre-specified eligibility criteria
  • Methods section outlines a detailed search strategy used to identify and appraise articles
  • May include a meta-analysis, but not required 

Example: Lohani, G., & Sharma, P. (2023). Effect of clinical supervision on self-awareness and self-efficacy of psychotherapists and counselors: A systematic review. 

• meta-analysis 
  • A subset of systematic reviews: uses quantitative methods to combine the results of independent studies and synthesize the summaries and conclusions
  • Methods section outlines a detailed search strategy used to identify and appraise articles; often surveys clinical trials
  • Can be conducted independently, or as a part of a systematic review
  • All meta-analyses are systematic reviews, but not all systematic reviews are meta-analyses

Example: Alldredge, C., Burlingame, G., & Rosendahl, J. (2023). Group psychotherapy for chronic pain: A meta-analysis.

Theoretical Article

A theoretical article contains or refers to new or established abstract principles related to a specific field of knowledge. These article are peer reviewed but do not normally contain research or present experimental data. 

Example: Kathy Charmaz & Robert Thornberg (2021) The pursuit of quality in grounded theory, Qualitative Research in Psychology